Interdisciplinary Honors
Dr. R. Emmet McLaughlin Study Questions
Anselm 1, "Why God Became Man," pp. 260-282.
What is the purpose of the treatise? What does Anselm hope to achieve by his arguments?
What is the relationship of faith and reason? where does faith come from? What limits does
Anselm place on the validity of his own arguments? What is the objection of unbelievers
that Anselm hopes to overcome? When Anselm uses "arguments from reason" what
sort of arguments or reason does he mean? Boso distinguishes two types of reason. What are
they, and does Anselm adhere to the distinction? Anselm bases his arguments on certain key
verities, like Euclidean theorems. What are they? What is the nature of God? Why did
Christ (and why do some men) follow the will of God?
Anselm 2, "Why God Became Man," pp. 282-315.
What is sin? What is owed God? Why can God not leave sin unpunished? What do you think
of Anselm's position on this? It is said that God permits evil. Why? Why does Anselm
digress concerning the angels? What purpose does that digression serve? What are the
limits of theological speculation? What sort of arguments and reasons does Anselm employ?
Why does God arrange to save fallen man? Why cannot man make satisfaction for his sins?
Why is man's inability to do God's will reckoned as sin? Why does God not merely forgive
sin out of compassion?
Anselm 3, "Why God Became Man," pp. 315-333.
For what purpose was man created, and how do we know that? What guarantees do we have
that God will indeed save some men? Does this not rob God of his freedom? Why must
satisfaction be rendered by the God/Man? How would you define the composition of the
God/Man? Can you imagine objections to the type of arguments contained in Chap IX? It is
said that Christ could not sin. Yet he is God and all-powerful. How does Anselm explain
that seeming contradiction? Does God possess a free will? Why did God not make men and the
angels originally incapable of sin? Aside from rendering satisfaction by his death, how
else did the God/Man aid mankind by his Incarnation?
Anselm 4 , "Why God Became Man," pp. 333-356.
What value may be placed on the self-sacrifice of the God/Man? Why are some men saved by Christ's sacrifice and others are not? How was Christ born without sin? How can one co-ordinate the ideas of necessity and divine freedom ? How would you distinguish the two types of necessity? How would you describe the inter-Trinitarian exchange effected by Christ's self-sacrifice? In general, what do you think of Anselm's style and method?
Aquinas 1, pp. 34-36, 38-39 (Q. 5, arts. 1 and 3), 189-190 (Q. 17, art. 4), 520-524 (Q. 18, arts. 1-2), 544-555 (Q. 49 art. 4, Q. 51, arts. 1-4), 560-565 (Q. 55, arts. 1 and 4), 590-1, 593-595 (Q. 62, arts. 1 and 3), 597-601 (Q. 63, arts. 1-2).
What is evil? What are habits? How are they caused? Why does God infuse habits? How do
infused and acquired habits relate. What is virtue? What is infused virtue ? Why is
infused virtue necessary? What distinguishes theological virtues from other virtues ? What
are the theological virtues?
Aquinas 2, pp. 651-671 (Q. 109), 672-677, 678-681 (Q. 112, arts. 1-3, 5) and XEROX: pp. 366-368 (Q. 27, art. 8).
In what ways does grace make knowledge possible? Why is grace necessary to will or do
the good? Before the Fall? After the Fall? Can man love God above all things by the
exercise of his natural powers? What is the heresy of the Pelagians? Men needed grace both
before and after the Fall in order to obey the commandments of the Law. Why? What is
charity? Why is grace necessary for meriting eternal life? How does an individual begin
the process of salvation? Why is grace necessary to rise up from sin? In what way is sin
unavoidable without grace? In addition to the grace that turns man to God and habitual
grace, there are other graces. What are they? In what sense can man be said to prepare
himself for grace? Must God give grace to those who do their best? Can man know for
certain that he has grace?
Aquinas 3, pp.201-213 (Q.19, arts. 5-9), pp. 368-370, 372-375 (Q. 83, arts. 1, 3-4), pp. 361-365 (Q. 82, arts. 1-2), and XEROX: Q. 23, pp. 101-118.
How can God's will be said to have no cause and to have causes? How can God be said to
will that all humans be saved? If God does not will evil, how can it exist? Contrast
choice and will. [Warning: The translation to be found in the Xerox is slightly
different than in the book. It incorrectly translates "free choice" as
"free will." Follow the terminology found in the book, not the Xerox.] In
what does free choice consist? How is sin possible? In what sense can man be said to have
free will? What is predestination? Why does Aquinas accept it? Why does he also feel that
it is logically necessary? Are predestination, rejection, and free will compatible? Why
are some men predestined and others rejected? Is that not unjust? Could not the teaching
of predestination have a bad effect on Christians? How would they be avoided?
Aquinas 4, pp. 3-12, 13-19 (Q. 1, arts. 1-6, 8-10), 20-28(Q. 2, arts 1-3), 70-72, 83-85, 93-94 (Q.12, arts. 1, 7, 12) 99-104, 106-111, 123-125 (Q. 13, arts. 2-3, 5-6, 12).
What is Theology? Why is Theology (Sacred Doctrine) necessary in addition to Philosophy? How is it distinguished from Philosophy? Why is it superior to Philosophy? If the conclusions of Philosophy and Theology disagree, what must be done? What are the roles of reason, revelation, authority and Philosophy in Sacred Doctrine? Why does Holy Scripture employ similes and metaphors? What is meant by the literal and allegorical senses of Scripture? What are the five ways that Aquinas uses to prove the existence of God? Why is there a problem applying names and descriptions to God? Is God good? why does Aquinas insist that analogy is the proper manner of speaking concerning God. What do analogous, univocal and equivocal mean? What impact does that have on the possibility of doing Theology?
Luther 1, "Freedom of a Christian," pp. 265-288.
What does Luther hope to accomplish with the open letter to the Pope? Why has Luther
attacked the Papacy and its supporters? What was it, according to Luther that his
opponents felt constrained to defend? Luther would have remained silent, he claimed, but
for what? What errors concerning the Papacy did Luther warn the Pope to avoid? When is
faith most useful? What is the freedom of a Christian (or Christian liberty)? Luther
denies that both external and internal works are useful. Why? What is it that the soul
needs? What purpose should the Christian clergy serve? What is the proper response to the
Word? Faith and works cannot coexist. Why? What causes sin? What procures salvation? What
are the incomparable benefits of faith? How would you compare Luther's style of doing
theology to Anselm's and Aquinas'?
Luther 2, "Freedom of a Christian," pp. 288-316.
How does Luther describe the office of Christ? What is it that Christ does? Faith gives
Christians a power like that of Christ. How? How does that relate to the freedom of a
Christian? What is the error of the Papists? How is faith misunderstood? Why should a
Christian do good works? What function do good works serve in the life of a Christian?
Luther uses the analogy of a tree and its fruits to explain good and evil works. How would
you compare this to Aquinas? with regard to works, how may a Christian be said to be free?
Why will a Christian serve his neighbor? What is the problem with "precepts of the
Church?" Luther proposes a "middle course" between two extremes. What are
they? How should a Christian exercise his freedom? What useful and necessary function do
ceremonies serve? How does one achieve faith?
Luther 3, "To the Christian Nobility," pp. 7-26; "The Babylonian Captivity," pp. 243-250.
Why does Luther address his pamphlet to the nobility? What warrant does Luther have for
treating the issues contained in the treatise? What are the three walls that Luther seeks
to overthrow? According to Luther, what makes a priest? What sets clergy and laity apart?
What ramifications does that have for Church/State relations? How does Luther describe the
Roman position on papal doctrinal authority? Upon what did the "Romanists" base
this papal prerogative? Why does Luther reject their arguments? According to Luther, who
should interpret Scripture? What arguments does he have to back that position up? Who has
the right to convene a council? How is one to judge when a council is needed? How can one
decide whether Luther or the Pope is right? What purpose does ordination serve for Luther?
For the Romanists (according to Luther)? What is a priest? what practical problems does
Luther's demolition of the three walls pose?
Luther 4, "The Babylonian Captivity," pp. 132-135, 142-148, 150-155, 158, 162-63, 171-72, 176-78, 180, 182, 197, 206-09, 212.
What is the Babylonian Captivity of the Church? How many sacraments are there for
Luther? Why does Luther reject the use of John 6 for explicating the Eucharist? What are
the three captivities of the Eucharist? Does Luther insist on granting the laity both
kinds (bread and wine)? What is wrong with the Catholic teaching on transubstantiation
according to Luther? What position does he teach? Why? What is a sacrament? what does one
"get" in the Eucharist? Why does Luther reject the "sacrifice of the
mass?" What does Baptism achieve? Of what use is Confession and the sacrament of
Penance (Reconciliation)?
Luther 5, "Bondage of the Will," XEROX pp. 166-184.
Relying on Luther's description, why did Erasmus advise scepticism as appropriate
toward theological doctrine. Why does Luther reject scepticism? Who do you think was
correct? Erasmus had argued for the obscurity of Scripture. Why? Luther carefully
distinguishes God and his scriptures. Why? What effect does that have on the role of
Scripture? If Scripture is so clear, why do people misunderstand it? Erasmus finds
discussion of free will superfluous. What should men do instead of worrying about it?
Luther rejects Erasmus' position. Why? Luther carefully defines contingency and necessity.
What are they? what are "necessity of consequence" and "necessity of the
consequent?" What is Luther's argument from reason for divine necessitating
foreknowledge? Luther accuses Erasmus of having a "moderate, skeptical
theology." Is moderation inappropriate to theology?
Luther 6, "Bondage of the Will," XEROX pp. 184-203.
Why must a Christian know and welcome the doctrine of God's predetermination of man's fate? Do you see any problem with Luther's argument? According to Luther, in what does free will consist? why does God save some men and not others? How does God work evil in men? Is God good? Righteous?
Calvin 1, Institutes, XEROX Book I: 1.1-4.1, 5.4, 6.1-7.5, 11-13.1 (pp. 1-13, 15-16, 19-26, 30-32).
Why should men seek knowledge of God? Why is knowledge of God necessary for true
self-knowledge? Calvin argues that one must begin (as the Institutes themselves do) with
knowledge of God. What impact would that have as compared with a theology that began with
man? What is true piety? True religion? What is superstition and where does it come from?
There is a natural knowledge of God. where does it come from? Why is it given? How is it
misused? Why did God also give Revelation (Scripture)? Why should we accept the authority
of Scripture? What are the two most obvious characteristics of God according to Calvin?
How does that affect man's worship of him?
Calvin 2, Institutes, XEROX Book II (pp. 42-62); Book III: 21.5-23.14 (pp. 91-97).
What is original sin? Calvin distinguishes "sin" from the "fruits of
sin." What is "sin?" How could God 'reasonably' reject an infant whose only
failing was original sin? Calvin describes man as sinning necessarily, but voluntarily.
How does that work? What do Augustine and Calvin mean by "Not grace by liberty, but
liberty by grace?" Calvin was charged with making God the cause of evil. Does he in
fact? What is the relationship of Old and New Testaments? How were the ancient Israelites
saved? According to Calvin, what is predestination? What causes some men to be saved and
others to be damned? Why must predestination be preached? Why are the dangers of preaching
predestination illusory?
Calvin 3, Institutes, XEROX Book III: 5-14.7 (pp. 63-87).
What is faith? Where does it come from? In what does one have faith? What does faith
obtain? Being already saved by faith, why should one bother to lead a good Christian life?
Why does God bother to save some human beings? Calvin stresses the pursuit of Christian
perfection. How might Luther have reacted to that? Was Calvin a puritan? Was he a dualist?
What does he think of life in the world? Was he an ascetic? How may we judge the proper
manner to use the things of this world? What is Christian liberty in this regard? What
does Calvin mean by vocation? Why does he bring it up when he does? What is justification?
Calvin 4, Institutes, XEROX Book IV (pp. 98-126).
Why are there external aids? Why a Church? What is the Church? Is the Roman Catholic Church a true church? According to Calvin, how did the Catholics defend their traditional worship and doctrine? What is the standard by which true worship is measured? What does the Church do? How is discipline administered? For what purpose did God institute discipline? How does Calvin define a sacrament? What sacraments does Calvin admit? What does Baptism achieve? What happens in the Lord's Supper? Can you figure out what the Catholic position on the Lord's Supper is that he is rejecting? Why does he reject it? Why was the Supper instituted? What good does it do? How do the words of consecration work for Calvin?
Locke 1, "Reasonableness of Christianity," pp. 24-52 (through paragraph 227).
Why does Locke set out to provide a new system of divinity?. Locke promises an
"unbiased search" for the truth. Should the search for truth be
"unbiased?" What does unbiased mean? What are the two "extreme"
interpretations of Adam's Fall according to Locke? What is the purpose of Scripture and
how should it be interpreted? What is the effect of the Fall? Does Locke avoid the
pitfalls which he ascribes to others who have discussed the significance of the Fall? What
does the law of faith accomplish? What is faith? Why was Christ resurrected? What
significance is attached to the fact that Christ was the Son of God? What was the Messiah
to accomplish? Why did Christ not openly proclaim himself as Messiah? Why does God perform
miracles? Locke denies the distinction between an historical faith and a true justifying
faith. What impact could this denial have on the quality of Locke's Christianity? How can
individuals be saved? For what purpose did Christ come to mankind (Cur Deus Homo)? Why
must people be justified before entering heaven? Why does Locke find justification by
faith alone unreasonable? What parts of the New Testament does Locke rely on most? Locke
argues that none are punished for unbelief. What ramifications could that argument have on
organized religion?
Locke 2, "The Reasonableness of Christianity," pp. 52-77.
What tribute do human beings owe God? How were people saved before Christ? Can those
who never heard of Christ be saved? Locke claims that forgiveness upon repentance is part
of the "eternal, immutable standard of right" discoverable by reason. Do you
agree? What is the relationship of Reason and Gospel? Why was Christ necessary? What are
the two signs of false religion? Where does false religion come from? What purpose does
religion serve? For Locke what is the relationship between Reason and Revelation? Christ
according to Locke, also came to reform worship. From what? To what? In what way does
Christ assist individuals to be good?
Locke 3, "Discourse on Miracles," pp. 79-87. "A Further Note on Miracles," 90-99. "A Letter Concerning Toleration," pp. 21-31.
According to Locke, what is a miracle? How can one tell what is a miracle and what is
not? How can one choose between two contending doctrines supported by miracles? Does
Locke's explanation work? Can miracles be unreasonable? Why did people become Christian in
the early centuries according to Locke? Why can't Orthodoxy of faith serve as the
distinguishing sign of true Christianity? What is the goal and purpose of true religion?
For what purpose does civil government (the commonwealth) exist? Is it true that outward
force cannot compel belief and understanding? What would a Calvinist say about Locke's
emphasis on the interiority of religion? Why would Locke think that religion based on
individual reason and conscience was more likely to be true than a government sponsored
one? What would medieval and reformation theologians think of Locke's definition of a
Church? What is the source of authority, for Locke, in the Church? Is the Church really
like other societies and companies?
Locke 4, "A Letter Concerning Toleration," pp. 31-58.
Do you see any problems with Locke's argument concerning the power of Orthodoxy over error? Is Locke historically accurate about the right way to propagate the truth? Locke's separation of Church and State required a redefinition of those two entities. How were they redefined? Locke argues that imposing true worship on the unwilling displeases God and causes sin. How might Calvin disagree? Locke argues that the form of worship employed has no significance for the state. Do you find problems with this. Can religion be so clearly distinguished from secular life? Locke rejects the Old Testament model of Church/State relations. How successful are his arguments?
Pascal 1, Pensées, pp. 3-27.[#1-#104]
Why does Pascal reject the proof from nature for the existence of God? Does Pascal seek
proof? How does Pascal set out to persuade people that religion is necessary? Pascal was a
scientist. What does he think of the value of science in matters of ultimate significance?
How does Pascal define human nature? What role does diversion play in human existence?
Where do human values, human culture, come from? What role does reason play in human
affairs? What are the sources of erroneous ideas and ideal in individuals? Why can't man
find enduring happiness on his own? Whence comes human justice and why are laws obeyed?
What key words would Pascal use to describe man? How does Pascal evaluate majority rule?
What is the purpose of number 93 (p. 54)? Is Pascal a sceptic?
Pascal 2, Pensées, pp. 27-46.[#105-#148]
What is the purpose of number 109 (p. 57)? How can scepticism be overcome? Wherein lies
man's greatness? Why are the contradictions in man's character so important for Pascal's
argument? What is the relationship of nature and habit? Pascal prepares two possible
conclusions concerning man's true nature based on his wretchedness. What are they? Why
does Pascal call men "a monster that passes all understanding?" What is
dogmatism and what is scepticism? Why does Pascal feel true scepticism is rare or
impossible? What does Pascal mean by saying "Man transcends man?" What role does
diversion play in Pascal's proof for God? Would it be better to be a philosopher, fleeing
diversion? What explanation does Pascal give for the transmission of sin? What is the
relationship of diversion and human culture? What is wrong with philosophy and
philosophers?
Pascal 3, Pensées, pp. 46-70, 110-112, 121-136, 285-286. [#149-#220, #377-#382, #418-#431, #913]
What must true religion do? What are the failings of philosophy? Some aspects of Christianity are incomprehensible. Why should we accept them? Why did Christ not overwhelm all doubts by his divine majesty? Although to all outward appearances all religions are equal, why should an individual not merely accept them as equal? Why must religion not be measured and constrained by reasons? What is the proper Christian frame of mind? What is the relationship of faith and the senses? What proofs are there for the truth of Christianity? What is the difference between knowing that God exists through Jesus Christ and knowing it through reason? Science and philosophy properly understood should bring man to God. Why? What is the essence of Christianity? What distinguishes it from all other religions? Why does Pascal put the question of God's existence in the form of a wager? Why does he refuse people the right not to wager at all? What is it that one stakes to the wager? What does one stand to gain? Is Pascal convincing? What should one do if one is convinced to accept the wager, but still lacks real faith? Why should sceptics accept Christianity despite obscurity and uncertainty? Why should a sceptic hope that Christianity is right? Despite all this, why do people claim indifference? How would you interpret the "Memorial?" What happened to Pascal on Nov. 23, 1654? One could argue that such an experience could not have been occasioned by a "generic" God or religion. Why?
Hume 1, "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion," pp. 1-27.
What two aspects of Natural Religion does Pamphilus consider worthy of discussion? What
is the significance of the order proposed for studying philosophy and theology? According
to Demea, how is religion/theology actually inculcated? How does philosophy contribute to
Natural Theology? Cleanthes expresses doubt as to the thoroughness of Philo's scepticism.
In what way? Philo accepts limits to his scepticism. What are they? According to Cleanthes
where does Christianity's traditional distrust of human reason come from? Demea, Cleanthes
and Philo represent three theological/philosophical positions. What are they? What is the
epistemological basis of Philo's scepticism? What is Cleanthes argument for the existence
of God? Why do both Demea and Philo find it objectionable? Is there a danger in trying to
prove the existence of God?
Hume 2, "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion," pp. 28-53.
In order to hold his position on the proof for God's existence Cleanthes presents a new
conception of God. What is it? Demea has a differing view. What is it? Why does Cleanthes
call him a "mystic" and an "atheist?" What is the nature of Philo's
criticism of anthropomorphism? What is the basic problem at issue in Parts IV and V? Philo
proposes other analogies. What are they? Philo's critique of Cleanthes uncovers the
latter's presuppositions. What are they?
Hume 3, "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion," pp. 54-76.
What is Demea's metaphysical argument? How does it differ from the earlier ones? Demea
presents a second argument. What is it? How is it contrasted with Cleanthes' view? Which
do you find more acceptable? What motive lies behind the worship of God according to Demea
and Cleanthes? How do they view the world and human existence? Human nature? What problem
does the existence of evil pose? How would Cleanthes explain it? What is evil according to
Cleanthes and Philo? According to Demea what is wrong with Cleanthes approach to God and
religion?
Hume 4, "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion," "Of the Immortality of the Soul," and "Of Suicide," pp. 77-105.
How do you explain Philo's adherence to Theism in Part XII? What is the nature of the Deity that both he and Cleanthes accept? Is it a Christian God? What purpose does religion serve? Why did Hume write the Dialogues? What is wrong with popular religion according to Philo? What do you of Hume's arguments against the immortality of the soul? Do they convince? Are their presuppositions or assumptions in Hume's essays that you find disturbing or unpalatable? Does he prove more than one should be comfortable with?